The powder coating process is a method of spraying electrostatically charged dry powder over the material surface. The powder coating process is also known as the electrostatic spray deposition process. The dry powder constitutes a combination of finely ground pigments and resins. Powder coating was introduced in the late 1980 s and is being extensively used in the industrial, commercial, and household applications. This process provides a smooth, durable, decorative, and a corrosion-resistant coating.
POWDER COATING PROCESS
Difference between Powder coating process and Polyester Powder coating
A lot of confusion is prevailing between the terms, “Powder Coating” and “Polyester powder” coating. Powder coating is the method of application of electrostatically charged dry powder to the material to be coated. Powder coating can be applied on any surface. However, the powder coating ingredients differs with material types and the environment where it is used. The most popular powder coating types are Epoxy Powder Coating, Polyester Powder Coating, and Hybrid Powder Coatings.
Polyester powder coatings preferred in applications are classified into TGIC Polyester coating and Urethane polyester coating. For aluminium extrusions, TGIC Polyester coating is preferred due to there low temperature curing properties.
Powder coating process is broadly classified into three important stages.
Surface preparation
Powder coating process
Curing process
Surface Preparation
The durability and serviceability of a coating depend on the quality of surface preparation. Surface preparation is essential to remove the dirt, grease, and other impurities from the material surface. The cleaning process includes various stages of cleaning, rinsing, etching, blasting, and drying, etc. The surface preparation stages are as follows.
Chemical cleaning
Conversion coating
Chemical cleaning
The chemical cleaning process uses mild alkalies(caustic soda), acids, and detergents for cleaning. The cleaning process is followed by rinsing with hot water, steam, detergent, etc. However, the type of acid/alkali cleaners depends on the material type to be coated. For example, aluminium is sensitive to acid attacks and requires mild alkaline cleaners. Rinsing with nitric acid done on anodised surfaces. On completion of the cleaning process, the surface feels smooth and free from grease, oil, impurities, etc
REMOVING MATERIALS FROM OVEN
b) Conversion coating
A conversion coating is applied on the surface to enable strong adhesion with powder coating. The chemical solutions for conversion coating are selected based on the type of material to be coated. For aluminium surfaces, the conversion coating is applied for a surface with strong adhesive nature and to arrest the progress of oxidation before powder coating.
For aluminium surfaces, conversion coating uses chromatic or phosphate solutions. In mild steel Zinc phosphate/ iron phosphate solutions are used. After completing the conversion coating, the coated material is cleaned in rinsing tanks. The final rinse is done using simonized water. The rinsing process removes chemical salts and other residues from the surface of the material that can trigger corrosion and can affect the coating adhesion properties.
On completion of the conversion coating, the material is dried in a drying oven to remove any possible moisture before application of the coating.
Powder coating process-Types
Once the drying process is over, the clean and dry material from the drying oven is shifted to a powder coating booth for powder coating. The powder coating application is commonly done in two methods based on the type of material and environment where it is used.
Electrostatic deposition
Fludized bed powder coating
Electrostatic deposition
In Electrostatic spray deposition or ESD method of powder coating, the finely ground powder is sprayed by a gun to the material. The entire system constitutes a spray booth, a powder feeder, an electrostatic spray gun, and a power unit. For the ESD process of powder coating, a finely ground resin and pigment powder are charged inside a gun. The material to be coated is grounded/earthed to provide an opposite charge. The electrically charged particles from the gun are sprayed on to the earthed material. The powder on leaving the gun gets attracted to the earthed parts due to electrostatic attraction. In this process, areas that are not even in line with the gun also get attracted to the material to be coated. The powder will continue to stick on the surface as long as it is grounded/earthed. The thickness of the coatings depends on the type of environment the part will be used in. Any powder left after the coating is reclaimed and reused.
POWDER COATED MATERIALS
Fluidized bed powder coating process
In the Electrostatic deposition process, the powder coating material is electrostatically sprayed and adhered to the surface. But in the case of fluidized bed powder coating, preheated parts are dipped to the powder material within a fluidized bed. There is also an alternative option called electrostatic fluidized bed powder coating, which generates a cloud of electrically charged powder particles above the fluidized bed through which the part to be coated is passed.
Curing of coated materials
The coated materials are co to an oven, where the painting process gets completed by ‘curing’ the particles. The oven heats the metal to about 200°C. The high temperature first fuses and melts the powder particles, allowing them to flow together to form a film and then cures the resin system in the film to form a smooth surface. Other additives within the powder formulation make them anchored to the conversion coating, developing a cohesive structure. After the curing oven, sections are transported to a cooling station, inspected, packed, and dispatched.
CURING BOOTH FOR POWDER COATING
Advantages of powder coatings process over liquid coatings
The wet painting system was the most common and traditional coating method. In this method, water-based or solvent-based paint is sprayed or painted to the material surface. Many concerns or issues associated with liquid paints are eliminated or minimised with the powder coating process. The advantages of powder coating over wet paint are listed below.
Resistance to corrosion and chemicals
Powder coatings are more durable and more resistant to corrosion, chemicals, weather, etc than liquid coatings. Powder coating provides wear, scratch-free, and abrasion-resistant coatings in comparison with liquid paints. The application process of powder coating is thermal bonding which provides a uniform, smooth, and even coating. The colours always look fresh and bright and give a refreshing look than liquid paints.
Color choice
Powder coatings offer an unlimited range of colours, finishes, textures, which is not achievable through any type of conventional liquid coating method. Powder coating can match the colour scheme of any object/structure. The enormous choice of colours and textures ranging from matt, glossy, and textured to metallic finishes makes powder coating one of the most preferred coating choices. Powder coating can be used as a protective coating as well as decorative applications.
POWDER COATING COLOURS
Durability of powder coating
Powder coatings are long-lasting and durable than any other liquid coatings. Powder coatings offer high resistance to impact, moisture, chemicals, wear, and abrasion compared to any other liquid coatings. They can also protect the materials against possible scratches occurring during the fabrication and fixing of the material and can be used in high traffic areas.
Environmental friendly
The liquid coatings emit VOC s (volatile organic compounds) due to the presence of solvents and cause serious environmental issues. Powder coating is free of any solvents and does not emit any VOCs and is thereby considered a green product. Moreover, the powder coating process does not create any hazardous waste that needs disposal. Any waste powder left after the coating is reclaimed and used. Powder coating is considered an environmentally friendly alternative to liquid coatings and thereby extensively used for green building-related projects.
Operational cost of powder coating
Powder coating is an economic option when compared with other organic finishes/ liquid painting methods. The powder coating application can be done with minimal training and supervision and thereby can reduce costs related to labour and operations. Powders left after the coating is recycled and reused. Fewer energy costs, reduced disposal costs, and low reject costs makes powder coating an economical option. Powder coating also has a longer life span when compared to other coatings and this can be another value addition in terms of money.
Safety
Liquid paints are flammable, carcinogenic, and full of volatile organic compounds and are harmful to the environment as well as the workers involved in the process, if not handled properly. Powder coating consists of solids and no solvents and hence is not harmful to persons handling it. Moreover, powder coatings possess good fire rating qualities in comparison with other liquid coatings.
Disadvantages of powder coating process
Thin coatings are difficult to produce
Powder coatings are 100% solid and because of this, even with a minimum amount of application, the initial thickness is formed. Moreover, it does not contain any volatile organic compounds. This makes it impossible to have thicknesses of less than 25 microns. Whereas in liquid paint, we have paint thinner and it is possible to have a lower percentage of solids, the film thickness can even be limited to 10 microns.
Failure of coating on exposed to atmosphere
On exposure to extreme atmospheric conditions like sunlight, heat, humidity, etc powder coating tends to fail, crack, and peel off. Hence not preferred for external applications involving exposure to extreme atmospheric conditions.
Color change after application
The production process and blending of powder coatings are carried out in a molten form. Hence it is not possible to change the color after production. Whereas in liquid paint we can change the color in all the stages, even when applying the paint, by adding stainers and pigments.
Size of coating material
The spray equipment and method of application of powder coatings confine the coating application to spray chambers only. Substrates must be charged and on completion of the coating. The materials have to be transferred to an oven where the curing process involving a temperature up to 200 degrees is done. Considering these conditions, it is not possible to coat and cure large substrates.
Oven curing
Powder coatings only dry and cure in temperatures above 180 degrees. Whereas liquid paints are varied and could dry up even in room temperature.
Control of material quantity and smoothness
Powder coating offers less control over the speed and amount of powder coating applied. The smoothness of the coating cannot be controlled as it is happening inside the oven.
Start up costs
The start up costs are high for powder coatings. Requires skilled workers for coating and operation of the plant.
After considering the limitations and advantages of powder coatings, and the selected product to be coated, you can evaluate whether coating metals with liquid paint or powder is more suitable.
Uses of powder coating process
Powder coating process is being used for a wide range of applications ranging from household , commercial, industrial ,automobile sectors.
Appliances
Powder coating is used for appliances like stoves, refrigerators, washers, dryers, dishwashers, air conditioners, water heaters, microwave ovens, and many other areas.
POWDER COATED HOUSE HOLD APPLIANCES
Automotive
Powder coating is used often in the automotive industry for engine parts and componets. It is also used by major auto brands as a clear top coat for increasing protection
Commercial Buildings and Offices
Powder coating is used for doors, windows, partions, roofing, cladding etc for residential buildings, commercial buiding etc.
Everywhere you look there are various building and highway projects which use powder coating as well – guardrails, light poles, fencing, posts, and signs are a few examples.
ALUMINIUM DOORS AND WINDOWS
Normal Daily Products
Many daily products are being powder coated to increase the quality of finishes. These products include antennas, lighting fixtures, and electrical elements. Farm equipment and tractors use powder coating. Fitness industries use powder coating on golf cards, golf clubs, ski poles, bicycles, snowmobiles, and other different types of exercise equipment.
Powder coating is also used for supermarkets, stores, malls etc . Every where around us we can see a material using powder coating.
Bachelor of Engineering subjects and Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech). Are they same? No, but yes. There are similarities and differences in both. The outcome of course is more or less the same, but the subjects are different. Lets look at the difference before we dive in to the BE civil engineering subjects.
Both are two different ofessional degree courses, but you get to be a civil engineer.
The universities which offer the courses are different
The subjects of both degrees are not the same. Though both contain topics that impart knowledge in civil engineering.
The course duration is same which is four years.
There is no much difference between career opportunities. All the jobs and exams offered to a BE graduate considers BE graduates and vice versa.
Now, moving on to the subjects,
BE Civil Engineering Subjects-Semester – 1
COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH
Objectives
• To develop the basic reading and writing skills of first year engineering and technology students.
• To help learners develop their listening skills, which will, enable them listen to lectures and comprehend them by asking questions; seeking clarifications.
• To help learners develop their speaking skills and speak fluently in real contexts.
• To help learners develop vocabulary of a general kind by developing their reading skills
Outcomes
At the end of the course, learners will be able to:
• Read articles of a general kind in magazines and newspapers.
• Participate effectively in informal conversations; introduce themselves and their friends and express opinions in English.
• Comprehend conversations and short talks delivered in English
• Write short essays of a general kind and personal letters and emails in English.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Richards, C. Jack. Interchange Students’ Book-2 New Delhi: CUP, 2015.
2. Bailey, Stephen. Academic Writing: A practical guide for students. New York: Rutledge,2011
ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS– I
Objectives
• The goal of this course is to achieve conceptual understanding and to retain the best traditions of traditional calculus. The syllabus is designed to provide the basic tools of calculus mainly for the purpose of modelling the engineering problems mathematically and obtaining solutions.
Outcomes
After completing this course, students should demonstrate competency in the following skills:
• Use both the limit definition and rules of differentiation to differentiate functions.
• Apply differentiation to solve maxima and minima problems.
• Evaluate integrals both by using Riemann sums and by using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
• Apply integration to compute multiple integrals, area, volume, integrals in polar coordinates, in addition to change of order and change of variables.
• Evaluate integrals using techniques of integration, such as substitution, partial fractions and integration by parts.
• Determine convergence/divergence of improper integrals and evaluate convergent improper integrals.
• Apply various techniques in solving differential equations.
2. Anton, H, Bivens, I and Davis, S, “Calculus”, Wiley, 10th Edition, 2016.
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Objectives
• To enhance the fundamental knowledge in Physics and its applications relevant to various streams of Engineering and Technology.
Outcomes
Upon completion of this course,
• The students will gain knowledge on the basics of properties of matter and its applications,
• The students will acquire knowledge on the concepts of waves and optical devices and their applications in fibre optics,
• The students will have adequate knowledge on the concepts of thermal properties of materials and their applications in expansion joints and heat exchangers,
• The students will get knowledge on advanced physics concepts of quantum theory and its applications in tunneling microscopes, and
• The students will understand the basics of crystals, their structures and different crystal growth techniques.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Bhattacharya, D.K. & Poonam, T. “Engineering Physics”. Oxford University Press, 2015.
2. Halliday, D., Resnick, R. & Walker, J. “Principles of Physics”. Wiley, 2015.
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Objectives
• To make the students conversant with boiler feed water requirements, related problems and water treatment techniques
• To develop an understanding of the basic concepts of phase rule and its applications to single and two component systems and appreciate the purpose and significance of alloys.
• Preparation, properties and applications of engineering materials.
• Types of fuels, calorific value calculations, manufacture of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
• Principles and generation of energy in batteries, nuclear reactors, solar cells, wind mills and fuel cells.
Outcomes
• The knowledge gained on engineering materials, fuels, energy sources and water treatment techniques will facilitate better understanding of engineering processes and applications for further learning.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. S. S. Dara and S. S. Umare, “A Textbook of Engineering Chemistry”, S. Chand & Company LTD, New Delhi, 2015 2. P. C. Jain and Monika Jain, “Engineering Chemistry” Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company (P) LTD, New Delhi, 2015
2. Friedrich Emich, “Engineering Chemistry”, Scientific International PVT, LTD, New Delhi, 2014.
PROBLEM SOLVING AND PYTHON PROGRAMMING
Objectives
• To know the basics of algorithmic problem solving
• To read and write simple Python programs.
• To develop Python programs with conditionals and loops.
• To define Python functions and call them.
• To use Python data structures –- lists, tuples, dictionaries.
• To do input/output with files in Python.
Outcomes
• Develop algorithmic solutions to simple computational problems
• Read, write, execute by hand simple Python programs.
• Structure simple Python programs for solving problems.
• Decompose a Python program into functions.
• Represent compound data using Python lists, tuples, dictionaries.
• Read and write data from/to files in Python Programs.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Allen B. Downey, “Think Python: How to Think Like a Computer Scientist’’, 2nd edition, Updated for Python 3, Shroff/O’Reilly Publishers, 2016 (http://greenteapress.com/wp/thinkpython/)
2. Charles Dierbach, “Introduction to Computer Science using Python: A Computational
ENGINEERING GRAPHICS
Objectives
• To develop in students, graphic skills for communication of concepts, ideas and design of engineering products.
• To expose them to existing national standards related to technical drawings.
Outcomes
On successful completion of this course, the student will be able to
• Familiarize with the fundamentals and standards of Engineering graphics
• Perform freehand sketching of basic geometrical constructions and multiple views of objects.
• Project orthographic projections of lines and plane surfaces.
• Draw projections and solids and development of surfaces.
• Visualize and to project isometric and perspective sections of simple solids.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Natrajan K.V., “A text book of Engineering Graphics”, Dhanalakshmi Publishers, Chennai, 2009.
2. Basant Agarwal and Agarwal C.M., “Engineering Drawing”, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 2008.
PROBLEM SOLVING AND PYTHON PROGRAMMING LABORATORY
Objectives
• To write, test, and debug simple Python programs.
• To implement Python programs with conditionals and loops.
• Use functions for structuring Python programs.
• Represent compound data using Python lists, tuples, dictionaries.
• Read and write data from/to files in Python.
Outcomes
Upon completion of the course, students will be able to
• Write, test, and debug simple Python programs.
• Implement Python programs with conditionals and loops.
• Develop Python programs step-wise by defining functions and calling them.
• Use Python lists, tuples, dictionaries for representing compound data.
• Read and write data from/to files in Python.
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY LABORATORY
Objectives
• To introduce different experiments to test basic understanding of physics concepts applied in optics, thermal physics, properties of matter and liquids.
Outcomes
Upon completion of the course, the students will be able to
• Apply principles of elasticity, optics and thermal properties for engineering applications.
CHEMISTRY LABORATORY
Objectives
• To make the student to acquire practical skills in the determination of water quality parameters through volumetric and instrumental analysis.
• To acquaint the students with the determination of molecular weight of a polymer by viscometery.
Outcomes
• The students will be outfitted with hands-on knowledge in the quantitative chemical analysis of water quality related parameters.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Vogel’s Textbook of Quantitative Chemical Analysis (8TH edition, 2014)
BE Civil Engineering Subjects-Semester – 2
TECHNICAL ENGLISH
Objectives
The Course prepares second semester engineering and Technology students to:
• Develop strategies and skills to enhance their ability to read and comprehend engineering and technology texts.
• Foster their ability to write convincing job applications and effective reports.
• Develop their speaking skills to make technical presentations , participate in group discussions.
• Strengthen their listening skill which will help them comprehend lectures and talks in their areas
Outcomes
At the end of the course learners will be able to:
• Read technical texts and write area- specific texts effortlessly.
• Listen and comprehend lectures and talks in their area of specialisation successfully.
• Speak appropriately and effectively in varied formal and informal contexts.
• Write reports and winning job applications.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Board of editors. Fluency in English A Course book for Engineering and Technology. Orient Blackswan, Hyderabad: 2016
2. Booth-L. Diana, Project Work, Oxford University Press, Oxford: 2014.
ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
Objectives
• This course is designed to cover topics such as Matrix Algebra, Vector Calculus, Complex Analysis and Laplace Transform. Matrix Algebra is one of the powerful tools to handle practical problems arising in the field of engineering.
Outcomes
After successfully completing the course, the student will have a good understanding of the following topics and their applications:
• Eigenvalues and eigenvectors, diagonalization of a matrix, Symmetric matrices, Positive definite matrices and similar matrices.
• Gradient, divergence and curl of a vector point function and related identities.
• Evaluation of line, surface and volume integrals using Gauss, Stokes and Green’s theorems and their verification.
• Analytic functions, conformal mapping and complex integration.
• Laplace transform and inverse transform of simple functions, properties, various related theorems and application to differential equations with constant coefficients.
2. Bali N., Goyal M. and Watkins C., “Advanced Engineering Mathematics”, Firewall Media (An imprint of Lakshmi Publications Pvt., Ltd.,), New Delhi, 7th Edition, 2009.
PHYSICS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING
Objectives
• To introduce the principles of thermal, acoustics, optics and new materials for civil engineering applications.
Outcomes
Upon completion of this course, the students will,
• Have knowledge on the thermal performance of buildings,
• Acquire knowledge on the acoustic properties of buildings,
• Get knowledge on various lighting designs for buildings,
• Gain knowledge on the properties and performance of engineering materials, and
• Understand the hazards of buildings.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Alexander, D. “Natural disaster”, Springer (1993).
2. Gaur R.K. and Gupta S.L., Engineering Physics. Dhanpat Rai publishers, 2012.
BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Objectives
• To explain the basic theorems used in Electrical circuits and the different components and function of electrical machines.
• To explain the fundamentals of semiconductor and applications.
• To explain the principles of digital electronics • To impart knowledge of communication.
Outcomes
• Ability to identify the electrical components and explain the characteristics of electrical machines.
• Ability to identify electronics components and understand the characteristics
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. D P Kothari and I.J Nagarath, ”Electrical Machines “Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering”, McGraw Hill Education(India) Private Limited, Third Reprint ,2016
2. A.E. Fitzgerald, David E Higginbotham and Arvin Grabel, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, McGraw Hill Education(India) Private Limited, 2009
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Objectives
• To study the nature and facts about environment.
• To finding and implementing scientific, technological, economic and political solutions to environmental problems.
• To study the interrelationship between living organism and environment.
• To appreciate the importance of environment by assessing its impact on the human world; envision the surrounding environment, its functions and its value.
• To study the dynamic processes and understand the features of the earth s interior and surface.
• To study the integrated themes and biodiversity, natural resources, pollution control, and waste management.
Outcomes
• Environmental Pollution or problems cannot be solved by mere laws. Public participation is an important aspect which serves the environmental Protection. One will obtain knowledge on the following after completing the course.
• Public awareness of environmental is at infant stage.
• Ignorance and incomplete knowledge has lead to misconceptions
• Development and improvement in std. of living has lead to serious environmental disasters
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Benny Joseph, ‘Environmental Science and Engineering’, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2006.
2. Dharmendra S. Sengar, ‘Environmental law’, Prentice hall of India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2007.
ENGINEERING MECHANICS
Objectives
• To develop capacity to predict the effect of force and motion in the course of carrying out the design functions of engineering.
Textbooks that be referred
Beer, F.P and Johnston Jr. E.R., “Vector Mechanics for Engineers (In SI Units): Statics and Dynamics”, 8th Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing company, New Delhi (2004).
2. Bhavikatti, S.S and Rajashekarappa, K.G., “Engineering Mechanics”, New Age International (P) Limited Publishers, 1998.
ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY
Objectives
• To provide exposure to the students with hands on experience on various basic engineering practices in Civil, Mechanical, Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
Outcomes
On successful completion of this course, the student will be able to
• Fabricate carpentry components and pipe connections including plumbing works.
• Use welding equipments to join the structures.
• Carry out the basic machining operations
• Make the models using sheet metal works
• Illustrate on centrifugal pump, Air conditioner, operations of smithy, foundary and fittings
• Carry out basic home electrical works and appliances
• Measure the electrical quantities
• Elaborate on the components, gates, soldering practices.
• To introduce the students to draft the plan, elevation and sectional views of buildings in accordance with development and control rules satisfying orientation and functional requirements as per National Building Code.
Outcomes
• The students will be able to draft the plan, elevation and sectional views of the buildings, industrial structures, and framed buildings using computer softwares.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Sikka V.B., A Course in Civil Engineering Drawing, 4th Edition, S.K.Kataria and Sons, 2015.
2. Chuck Eastman, Paul Teicholz, Rafael Sacks, Kathleen Liston, BIM Handbook:A Guide to building information modeling for Owners, Managers, Designers, Engineers, and Contractors, John Wiley and Sons. Inc.,2011.
BE Civil Engineering Subjects-Semester – 3
TRANSFORMS AND PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Objectives
• To introduce the basic concepts of PDE for solving standard partial differential equations.
• To introduce Fourier series analysis which is central to many applications in engineering apart from its use in solving boundary value problems.
• To acquaint the student with Fourier series techniques in solving heat flow problems used in various situations.
• To acquaint the student with Fourier transform techniques used in wide variety of situations.
• To introduce the effective mathematical tools for the solutions of partial differential equations that model several physical processes and to develop Z transform techniques for discrete time systems.
Outcomes
• Understand how to solve the given standard partial differential equations.
• Solve differential equations using Fourier series analysis which plays a vital role in engineering applications.
• Appreciate the physical significance of Fourier series techniques in solving one and two dimensional heat flow problems and one dimensional wave equations.
• Understand the mathematical principles on transforms and partial differential equations would provide them the ability to formulate and solve some of the physical problems of engineering.
• Use the effective mathematical tools for the solutions of partial differential equations by using Z transform techniques for discrete time systems.
2. Andrews, L.C and Shivamoggi, B, “Integral Transforms for Engineers” SPIE Press, 1999.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS I
Objectives
• To learn the fundamental concepts of Stress, Strain and deformation of solids.
• To know the mechanism of load transfer in beams, the induced stress resultants and deformations.
• To understand the effect of torsion on shafts and springs.
• To analyze plane and space trusses
Outcomes
Students will be able to
• Understand the concepts of stress and strain, principal stresses and principal planes.
• Determine Shear force and bending moment in beams and understand concept of theory of simple bending.
• Calculate the deflection of beams by different methods and selection of method for determining slope or deflection.
• Apply basic equation of torsion in design of circular shafts and helical springs, .
• Analyze the pin jointed plane and space trusses
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Rajput.R.K. “Strength of Materials”, S.Chand and Co, New Delhi, 2015.
2. Timoshenko.S.B. and Gere.J.M, “Mechanics of Materials”, Van Nos Reinbhold, New Delhi 1999.
FLUID MECHANICS
Objectives
• To understand the basic properties of the fluid, fluid kinematics, fluid dynamics and to analyze and appreciate the complexities involved in solving the fluid flow problems.
Outcomes
At the end of the course students will be able to
• Get a basic knowledge of fluids in static, kinematic and dynamic equilibrium.
• Understand and solve the problems related to equation of motion.
• Gain knowledge about dimensional and model analysis.
• Learn types of flow and losses of flow in pipes.
• Understand and solve the boundary layer problems.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Modi P.N and Seth “Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics including Hydraulic Machines”, Standard Book House New Delhi, 2009.
2. Streeter, V.L., and Wylie, E.B., “Fluid Mechanics”, McGraw Hill, 2000.
• To introduce students to various materials commonly used in civil engineering construction and their properties.
Outcomes
On completion of this course the students will be able to
• Compare the properties of most common and advanced building materials.
• Understand the typical and potential applications of lime, cement and aggregates
• know the production of concrete and also the method of placing and making of concrete elements.
• Understand the applications of timbers and other materials
• Understand the importance of modern material for construction.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1.Varghese.P.C, “Building Materials”, PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2015.
2. Jagadish.K.S, “Alternative Building Materials Technology”, New Age International, 2007.
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Objectives
• At the end of this course the students will be able to understand the importance of geological knowledge such as earth, earthquake, volcanism and to apply this knowledge in projects such as dams, tunnels, bridges, roads, airport and harbor.
Outcomes
The students completing this course
• Will be able to understand the importance of geological knowledge such as earth, earthquake, volcanism and the action of various geological agencies.
• Will get basics knowledge on properties of minerals.
• Gain knowledge about types of rocks, their distribution and uses.
• Will understand the methods of study on geological structure.
• Will understand the application of geological investigation in projects such as dams, tunnels, bridges, roads, airport and harbor
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Varghese, P.C., Engineering Geology for Civil Engineering Prentice Hall of India Learning Private Limited, New Delhi, 2012.
2. Blyth F.G.H. and de Freitas M.H., Geology for Engineers, Edward Arnold, London, 2010.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS LABORATORY
Objectives
• To facilitate the understanding of the behavior of construction materials.
Outcomes
• The students will have the required knowledge in the area of testing of construction materials and components of construction elements experimentally.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Construction Materials Laboratory Manual, Anna University, Chennai-600 025.
SURVEYING LABORATORY
Objectives
• At the end of the course the student will posses knowledge about Survey field techniques
Outcomes
• Students completing this course would have acquired practical knowledge on handling basic survey instruments including Theodolite, Tacheometry, Total Station and GPS and have adequate knowledge to carryout Triangulation and Astronomical surveying including general field marking for various engineering projects and Location of site etc.
INTERPERSONAL SKILLS/LISTENING AND SPEAKING
Objectives
The Course will enable learners to:
• Equip students with the English language skills required for the successful undertaking of academic studies with primary emphasis on academic speaking and listening skills.
• Provide guidance and practice in basic general and classroom conversation and to engage in specific academic speaking activities.
• Improve general and academic listening skills
• Make effective presentations.
Outcomes
At the end of the course Learners will be able to:
• Listen and respond appropriately.
• Participate in group discussions
• Make effective presentations
• Participate confidently and appropriately in conversations both formal and informal
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Brooks, Margret. Skills for Success. Listening and Speaking. Level 4 Oxford University Press, Oxford: 2011.
2. Bhatnagar, Nitin and MamtaBhatnagar. Communicative English for Engineers and Professionals. Pearson: New Delhi, 2010.
BE Civil Engineering Subjects-Semester – 4
NUMERICAL METHODS
Objectives
• To introduce the basic concepts of solving algebraic and transcendental equations.
• To introduce the numerical techniques of interpolation in various intervals in real life situations.
• To acquaint the student with understanding of numerical techniques of differentiation and integration which plays an important role in engineering and technology disciplines.
• To acquaint the knowledge of various techniques and methods of solving ordinary differential equations.
• To understand the knowledge of various techniques and methods of solving various types of partial differential equations.
Outcomes
• Understand the basic concepts and techniques of solving algebraic and transcendental equations.
• Appreciate the numerical techniques of interpolation and error approximations in various intervals in real life situations.
• Apply the numerical techniques of differentiation and integration for engineering problems.
• Understand the knowledge of various techniques and methods for solving first and second order ordinary differential equations.
• Solve the partial and ordinary differential equations with initial and boundary conditions by using certain techniques with engineering applications.
2. Brian Bradie, “A Friendly Introduction to Numerical Analysis”, Pearson Education, Asia, New Delhi, 2007.
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICES Objectives
• The main objective of this course is to make the student aware of the various construction techniques, practices and equipment needed for different types of construction activities.
Outcomes
• To know the different construction techniques and structural systems
• Understand various techniques and practices on masonry construction, flooring, and roofing.
• Plan the requirements for substructure construction.
• Know the methods and techniques involved in the construction of various types of super structures
• Select, maintain and operate hand and power tools and equipment used in the building construction sites.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. eurifoy, R.L., Ledbetter, W.B. and Schexnayder, C., “Construction Planning, Equipment and Methods”, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill, Singapore, 1995.
2. Jha J and Sinha S.K., “Construction and Foundation Engineering”, Khanna Publishers,
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II
Objectives
• To know the method of finding slope and deflection of beams and trusses using energy theorems and to know the concept of analysing indeterminate beam
• To estimate the load carrying capacity of columns, stresses due to unsymmetrical bending and various theories for failure of material.
Outcomes
Students will be able to,
• Determine the strain energy and compute the deflection of determinate beams, frames and trusses using energy principles.
• Analyze propped cantilever, fixed beams and continuous beams using theorem of three moment equation for external loadings and support settlements.
• Find the load carrying capacity of columns and stresses induced in columns and cylinders
• Determine principal stresses and planes for an element in three dimensional state of stress and study various theories of failure
• Determine the stresses due to Unsymmetrical bending of beams, locate the shear center, and find the stresses in curved beams.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Rajput R.K. “Strength of Materials (Mechanics of Solids)”, S.Chand & company Ltd., New Delhi, 2015.
• To introduce the students to various hydraulic engineering problems like open channel flows and hydraulic machines. At the completion of the course, the student should be able to relate the theory and practice of problems in hydraulic engineering.
Outcomes
• Apply their knowledge of fluid mechanics in addressing problems in open channels.
• Able to identify a effective section for flow in different cross sections.
• To solve problems in uniform, gradually and rapidly varied flows in steady state conditions
• Understand the principles, working and application of turbines.
• Understand the principles, working and application of pumps
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
Subramanya.K ,”Flow in open channels”, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2000.
2. Ven Te Chow, “Open Channel Hydraulics”, McGraw Hill, New York, 2009.
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
Objectives
• To impart knowledge to the students on the properties of materials for concrete by suitable tests, mix design for concrete and special concretes.
Outcomes
Students will be able to understand,
• The various requirements of cement, aggregates and water for making concrete
• The effect of admixtures on properties of concrete
• The concept and procedure of mix design as per IS method
• The properties of concrete at fresh and hardened state
• The importance and application of special concretes.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Gupta.B.L., Amit Gupta, “Concrete Technology”, Jain Book Agency, 2010.
• To impart knowledge to classify the soil based on index properties and to assess their engineering properties based on the classification. To familiarize the students about the fundamental concepts of compaction, flow through soil, stress transformation, stress distribution, consolidation and shear strength of soils.
Outcomes
Students will be able to
• Classify the soil and assess the engineering properties, based on index properties.
• Understand the stress concepts in soils
• Understand and identify the settlement in soils.
• Determine the shear strength of soil
• Analyze both finite and infinite slopes.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Murthy, V.N.S., “Text book of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, CBS Publishers Distribution Ltd., New Delhi. 2014
2. McCarthy, D.F., “Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundations: Basic Geotechnics”. Prentice-Hall, 2006.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LABORATORY
Objectives
• To expose the students to the testing of different materials under the action of various forces and determination of their characteristics experimentally.
Outcomes
• The students will have the required knowledge in the area of testing of materials and components of structural elements experimentally.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Strength of Materials Laboratory Manual, Anna University, Chennai – 600 025.
2. IS1786-2008 (Fourth Revision, Reaffirmed 2013), ‘High strength deformed bars and wires for concrete reinforcement – Specification’, 2008.
HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING LABORATORY
Objectives
• Students should be able to verify the principles studied in theory by performing the experiments in lab.
Outcomes
• The students will be able to measure flow in pipes and determine frictional losses.
• The students will be able to develop characteristics of pumps and turbines.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Sarbjit Singh.”Experiments in Fluid Mechanics”, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, Learning Private Limited, Delhi, 2009.
2. “Hydraulic Laboratory Manual”, Centre for Water Resources, Anna University, 2004.
ADVANCED READING AND WRITING
Objectives
• Strengthen the reading skills of students of engineering.
• Enhance their writing skills with specific reference to technical writing.
• Develop students’ critical thinking skills.
• Provide more opportunities to develop their project and proposal writing skills.
Outcomes
At the end of the course Learners will be able to:
• Write different types of essays.
• Write winning job applications.
• Read and evaluate texts critically.
• Display critical thinking in various professional contexts.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Gramer F. Margot and Colin S. Ward Reading and Writing (Level 3) Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2011
2. Davis, Jason and Rhonda LIss.Effective Academic Writing (Level 3) Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2006
BE Civil Engineering Subjects-Semester – 5
DESIGN OF REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE ELEMENTS
Objectives
• To introduce the different types of philosophies related to design of basic structural elements such as slab, beam, column and footing which form part of any structural system with reference to Indian standard code of practice.
Outcomes
Students will be able to,
• Understand the various design methodologies for the design of RC elements.
• Know the analysis and design of flanged beams by limit state method and sign of beams for shear, bond and torsion.
• Design the various types of slabs and staircase by limit state method.
• Design columns for axial, uniaxial and biaxial eccentric loadings. • Design of footing by limit state method.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Varghese, P.C., “Limit State Design of Reinforced Concrete”, Prentice Hall of India, Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2002.
2. Jain, A.K., “Limit State Design of RC Structures”, Nemchand Publications, Roorkee, 1998
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS I
Objectives
• To introduce the students to basic theory and concepts of classical methods of structural analysis
Outcomes
Students will be able to,
• Analyze continuous beams, pin-jointed indeterminate plane frames and rigid plane frames by strain energy method
• Analyse the continuous beams and rigid frames by slope defection method.
• Understand the concept of moment distribution and analysis of continuous beams and rigid frames with and without sway.
• Analyse the indeterminate pin jointed plane frames continuous beams and rigid frames using matrix flexibility method.
• Understand the concept of matrix stiffness method and analysis of continuous beams, pin jointed trusses and rigid plane frames.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Bhavikatti, S.S,Structural Analysis,Vol.1,& 2, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.Ltd.,NewDelhi-4, 2014.
2. Punmia. B.C, Ashok Kumar Jain & Arun Kumar Jain, Theory of structures, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi, 2004.
WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING
Objectives
• To equip the students with the principles and design of water treatment units and distribution system.
Outcomes
The students completing the course will have,
• An insight into the structure of drinking water supply systems, including water transport, treatment, and distribution
• The knowledge in various unit operations and processes in water treatment
• An ability to design the various functional units in water treatment
• An understanding of water quality criteria and standards, and their relation to public health
• Tthe ability to design and evaluate water supply project alternatives on basis of chosen criteria.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Garg, S.K. Environmental Engineering, Vol.IKhanna Publishers, New Delhi, 2010.
2. Manual on Water Supply and Treatment, CPHEEO, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, New Delhi, 1999.
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Objectives
• To impart knowledge to plan and execute a detail site investigation programme, to select geotechnical design parameters and type of foundations. Also to familiarize the students for the geotechnical design of different type of foundations and retaining walls.
Outcomes
Students will be able to,
• Understand the site investigation, methods and sampling.
• Get knowledge on bearing capacity and testing methods.
• Design shallow footings.
• Determine the load carrying capacity, settlement of Pile foundation
• Determine the earth pressure on retaining walls and analysis for stability.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Murthy, V.N.S., “Text book of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, CBS Publishers Distribution Ltd., New Delhi. 2014.
2. Braja M Das, “Principles of Foundation Engineering” (Eigth edition), Cengage Learning 2014.
SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY
Objectives
• To develop skills to test the soils for their index and engineering properties and to characterise the soil based on their properties.
Outcomes
• Students are able to conduct tests to determine both the index and engineering properties of soils and to characterize the soil based on their properties.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. “Soil Engineering Laboratory Instruction Manual” published by Engineering College Cooperative Society, Anna University, Chennai, 2010.
2. Lambe T.W., “Soil Testing for Engineers”, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1951. Digitized 2008.
WATER AND WASTE WATER ANALYSIS
Objectives
• To analyse the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water and wastewater
• To quantify the dosage requirement for coagulation process
• To study the growth of micro-organism and its quantification
• To quantify the sludge
Outcomes
On the completion of the course, the students will be able to:
• Quantify the pollutant concentration in water and wastewater
• Suggest the type of treatment required and amount of dosage required for the treatment
• Examine the conditions for the growth of micro-organisms
SURVEY CAMP
The objective of the survey camp is to enable the students to get practical training in the field work. Groups of not more than six members in a group will carry out each exercise in survey camp. At the end of the camp, each student shall have mapped and contoured the area. The camp record shall include all original field observations, calculations and plots.
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
Objectives
• To introduce the students to limit state design of structural steel members subjected to compressive, tensile and bending loads, including connections. Design of structural systems such as roof trusses, gantry girders as per provisions of current code (IS 800 – 2007) of practice for working stress and Limit state Method.
Outcomes
Students will be able to,
• Understand the concepts of various design philosophies
• Design common bolted and welded connections for steel structures
• Design tension members and understand the effect of shear lag.
• Understand the design concept of axially loaded columns and column base connections.
• Understand specific problems related to the design of laterally restrained and unrestrained steel beams.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Subramanian.N, “Design of Steel Structures”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2013.
2. Narayanan.R.et.al. “Teaching Resource on Structural Steel Design”, INSDAG, Ministry of Steel Publications, 2002
BE Civil Engineering Subjects-Semester – 6
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS II
Objectives
• To learn the method of drawing influence lines and its uses in various applications like beams and plane trusses.
• To analyse the arches, suspension bridges and space trusses.
• Also to learn Plastic analysis of beams and rigid frames.
Outcomes
Students will be able to,
• Draw influence lines for statically determinate structures and calculate critical stress resultants.
• Understand Muller Breslau principle and draw the influence lines for statically indeterminate beams.
• Analyse of three hinged, two hinged and fixed arches.
• Analyse the suspension bridges with stiffening girders
• Understand the concept of Plastic analysis and the method of analyzing beams and rigid frames.
• The student is exposed to different phases in irrigation practices and Planning and management of irrigation. Further, they will be imparted required knowledge on Irrigation storage and distribution canal system and Irrigation management.
Outcomes
Students will be able to,
• Have knowledge and skills on crop water requirements.
• Understand the methods and management of irrigation.
• Gain knowledge on types of impounding structures
• Understand methods of irrigation including canal irrigation.
• Get knowledge on water management on optimization of water use.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Dilip Kumar Majumdar, “Irrigation Water Management”, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, 2008.
2. Duggal, K.N. and Soni, J.P., “Elements of Water Resources Engineering”, New Age International Publishers, 2005
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
Objectives
• To give an overview about the highway engineering with respect to, planning, design, construction and maintenance of highways as per IRC standards, specifications and methods.
Outcomes
Students will be able to,
• Get knowledge on planning and aligning of highway.
• Geometric design of highways
• Design flexible and rigid pavements.
• Gain knowledge on Highway construction materials, properties, testing methods
• Understand the concept of pavement management system, evaluation of distress and maintenance of pavements.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Khanna.S. K., Justo.C.E.G and Veeraragavan A. “Highway Engineering”, Nemchand Publishers, 2014.
2. Indian Road Congress (IRC), Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements, ( Third Revision), IRC: 37-2012
WASTEWATER ENGINEERING
Objectives
• The objectives of this course is to help students develop the ability to apply basic understanding of physical, chemical, and biological phenomena for successful design, operation and maintenance of sewage treatment plants.
Outcomes
The students completing the course will have,
• An ability to estimate sewage generation and design sewer system including sewage pumping stations
• The required understanding on the characteristics and composition of sewage, selfpurification of streams
• An ability to perform basic design of the unit operations and processes that are used in sewage treatment
• Understand the standard methods for disposal of sewage.
• Gain knowledge on sludge treatment and disposal.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Garg, S.K., Environmental Engineering Vol. II, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 2015.
2. Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment Systems Part A,B and C, CPHEEO, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, New Delhi, 2013.
HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
Objectives
• To learn the principles and procedures of testing of highway materials
Outcomes
• Student knows the techniques to characterize various pavement materials through relevant tests.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Highway Materials and Pavement Testing, Nem Chand and Bros., Roorkee, Revised Fifth Edition, 2009
2. Methods for testing tar and bituminous materials, IS 1201–1978 to IS 1220– 1978, Bureau of Indian Standards
IRRIGATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING DRAWING
Objectives
• At the end of the semester, the student shall conceive, design and draw the irrigation and environmental engineering structures in detail showing the plan, elevation and Sections.
Outcomes
• The students after completing this course will be able to design and draw various units of Municipal water treatment plants and sewage treatment plants.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Satya Narayana Murthy Challa, “Water Resources Engineering: Principles and Practice”, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi, 2002.
1. Mohanakrishnan. A, “A few Novel and Interesting Innovative Irrigation Structures: Conceived, Designed and Executed in the Plan Projects in Tamil Nadu”, Publ. No. 44 and Water Resources Development & Management Publ.No.43, IMTI Thuvakudy, Trichy, 2011.
PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION
Objectives
The couse aims to,
• Enhance the Employability and Career Skills of students
• Orient the students towards grooming as a professional
• Make them Employable Graduates
• Develop their confidence and help them attend interviews successfully.
Outcomes
At the end of the course Learners will be able to,
• Make effective presentations
• Participate confidently in Group Discussions.
• Attend job interviews and be successful in them.
• Develop adequate Soft Skills required for the workplace
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Butterfield, Jeff Soft Skills for Everyone. Cengage Learning: New Delhi, 2015
2. Interact English Lab Manual for Undergraduate Students,. OrientBalckSwan: Hyderabad,
BE Civil Engineering Subjects-Semester – 7
ESTIMATION, COSTING AND VALUATION ENGINEERING
Objectives
• The students will acquire knowledge in estimation, tender practices, contract procedures, and valuation and will be able to prepare estimates, call for tenders and execute works.
Outcomes
The student will be able to,
• Estimate the quantities for buildings,
• Rate Analysis for all Building works, canals, and Roads and Cost Estimate.
• Understand types of specifications, principles for report preparation, tender notices types.
• Gain knowledge on types of contracts
• Evaluate valuation for building and land.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. B.N Dutta ‘Estimating and Costing in Civil Engineering’, UBS Publishers & Distributors (P) Ltd, 2010.
RAILWAYS, AIRPORTS, DOCKS AND HARBOUR ENGINEERING
Objectives
• To introduce the students about Railways planning, design, construction and maintenance and planning design principles of airport and harbour
Outcomes
Students who successfully complete this course will be able to,
• Understand the methods of route alignment and design elements in Railway Planning and Constructions.
• Understand the Construction techniques and Maintenance of Track laying and Railway stations.
• Gain an insight on the planning and site selection of Airport Planning and design.
• Analyze and design the elements for orientation of runways and passenger facility systems.
• Understand the various features in Harbours and Ports, their construction, coastal protection works and coastal Regulations to be adopted.
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Subramanian K.P., Highways, Railways, Airport and Harbour Engineering, V Scitech Publications (India), Chennai, 2010
2. Venkatramaiah. C., Transportation Engineering-Vol.2 Railways, Airports, Docks and Harbours, Bridges and Tunnels.,Universities Press (India) Private Limited, Hyderabad, 2015.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND DRAWING
Objectives
• This course aims at providing students with a solid background on the principles of structural engineering design. Students will be acquire the knowledge of liquid retaining structures, bridges components, retaining wall and industrial structures.
Outcomes
At the end of the course the student will be able to,
• Design and draw reinforced concrete Cantilever and Counterfort Retaining Walls
• Design and draw flat slab as per code provisions
• Design and draw reinforced concrete and steel bridges
• Design and draw reinforced concrete and steel water tanks
• Design and detail the various steel trusses and cantry girders
BE civil Engineering Subjects – Text books
1. Krishnaraju N, Structural Design and Drawing, Universities Press, 2009.
2. Krishnamurthy D,Structural Design and Drawing VolI,IIandIII,CBS Publishers, 2010. 2. Shah V L and Veena Gore,Limit State Design of Steel Structures
CREATIVE AND INNOVATIVE PROJECT
Objectives
• To use the knowledge acquired in Civil Engineering to do a mini project, which allows the students to come up with designs, fabrication or algorithms and programs expressing their ideas in a novel way
BE Civil Engineering Subjects-Semester – 8
Subjects in semester 8 are professional electives and final year project.
Lastly, I just want to tell you that the subjects may vary with universities, but same at the core.
Aluminium Anodising is an electrochemical process done on aluminium to increase the thickness of thin natural oxide coating and thereby enhance its corrosion properties. In our previous article Properties of Aluminium, the reasons behind applying a coating are described in detail. The anodic layer is non-conductive and acts as an insulation against electricity, sound, and heat. Aluminium anodising can increase the aesthetic look, absorb wear and tear and provide requisite durability against possible scratches occurred during handling, fabrication, and erection.
What is Aluminium Anodising ?
Anodising is an electrochemical process that transforms the metal surface into a decorative, durable, and anti corrosive anodic oxide finish. The Anodising process is conducted by passing an electric current through an electrolyte with aluminium to be coated as an anode. The oxygen ions released from the electrolyte get deposited on the surface of the object/anode. Oxygen reacts with aluminium to produce aluminium oxide. The thickness of Anodising ranges from 4 microns to 30 microns or some times more.
ANODISING TANK
Aluminium Anodising Process
The process of anodising is divided into stages depending upon t
Pre-treatment
The products to be anodised are cleaned in acid or alkali solutions to remove the dirt, grease, and other impurities from the surface. The pre-treatment method depends on the types of finish to be applied. The material is de-oxidised in an acidic solution to remove the natural oxide film.
Etching
Etching involves the removal of some parts of aluminium from the surface. This can be done using alkali or acid according to the finish coat type and texture. For satin finishes and precision parts light etching is done using alkali where minimum etching is done just enough to remove the natural oxide film. The alkaline solution used for light etching is Sodium Hydroxide. For non-precision parts and architectural extrusions, minor scratches and dye markings will be visible. Hence etching is done by treating in a concentrated mixture of phosphoric and nitric acids.
Etching process of aluminium
Brightening
Brightening is a micro level treatment done on the aluminium surface by chemical or eletrochemical means. This is done to level up the undulations. This provides a high lustre on the surface for receiving the coatings
Aluminium Anodising
The aluminium part to be anodised is submerged in an electrolyte solution. The electrolyte used in this process is sulphuric acid. The positive charge is applied to the submerged aluminium which acts as an anode and negative charge is applied to the plates suspended in the electrolyte. High voltage direct current is passed through the electrolyte constituting positive and negative ions. The electric current in the circuit causes positive ions to get attracted to the negative plates, and negative ions to flock to the positive aluminium anode.
Anodising aluminium in an electrolyte
Formation of barrier layer
The aluminium combines with the negatively charged oxygen ions to create aluminium oxide. This process develops a metal oxide film on the surface of aluminium that is treated. The layer quality can be adjusted with the concentration of solution and temperature.This is called a barrier layer, a defence against further chemical reactions at those spots.
FORMATION OF BARRIER LAYER
As current continues to be applied, the relatively weak and reactive areas of the pores will continue to penetrate deeper into the substrate, forming a series of column-like hollow structures. At this point the surface is porous and attracts dirt and other substances. Colour can be added at this stage.
SEQUENCE OF PORES FORMATION DURING ANODISING
For typical non-hard coatings, the depth can be up to 10 microns. Once this level is reached, and if no colour is needed, the process is stopped.
Sealing process
The final stage is sealing of pores and the process involves in dipping in a de-ionised water rinsing.
The coating can withstand chemical attack, scratch resistant and have a hardness index of 9 out of 10 in Mohs Hardness scale , means second only to diamond.
Application of colour
As mentioned above the barrier layer is porous like what is shown in the figure. At this stage we can go application of colour. The pigments fills the porous.
The pigment fills all the empty pores up to the surface, where it’s then permanently sealed off. That’s why anodised colours are so durable – they can’t be scratched off from the surface because in fact the colours are deep down and can only be removed by grinding away the substrate.
COLOUR/PIGMENT FILLING IN THE PORES
After colouring, anodised aluminium has a characteristic “metallic” look. This is caused because of the roughness left after a uniform electro-chemical etching. The deeper the pores, the rougher the surface will be but the colours will also be that much more durable.
Technique of colour anodising
There are several techniques for colour anodising aluminium. One technique is electrolytic colouring, which involves immersing the anodised aluminium in an inorganic metal salt bath. An electric current is applied to this bath as the metal salts oxidise in the aluminium’s pores. Depending on the chemical conditions of the bath and the length of time immersed, the aluminium colour will vary. Popular anodised colour finishes include gold, black, stainless, clear, brown, bronze, and nickel.
Advantages of aluminium anodising
Anodised aluminium possesses a lot of advantages over any other type of coatings. What is unique, is that no additional layer is applied to the aluminium during anodising. Anodising creates a layer that is built up from the existing aluminium. The oxide layer is fully integrated into the material.
a) Appearance of aluminium anodising
Anodising protects the natural feel and appearance of aluminium with its aesthetically pleasing looks. Anodised look feels better than a painted artificial look.
b) Resistance to corrosion & wear
Anodising increases corrosion resistance and the material retains its appearance for a longer period. Anodising creates a hard, wear-resistant layer which protects the underlying aluminium. Anodised aluminium is used in high traffic areas subjected to excessive wear and abrasion. It can also be used in areas exposed to sunlight, humidity, heat, etc without any effect on the coating.
c) Increase life span of aluminium anodising
Anodising is a very old and proven process. Anodised materials have a greater life span when compared with any other coating material.
d) Adhesion
Unlike paints and powder coatings, anodising is not a coating. Hence it may not fade or peel off when exposed to atmospheric conditions like sunlight, heat, moisture, etc.
e) Abrasion resistant
The aluminium oxide layer is one of the hardest material next to diamond. The anodic layer is capable of withstanding wear and abrasion in transportation, handling, and fabrication. Powder coatings are not as harder as anodised aluminium.
f) Environmental Friendly and VOC s
The process of anodising aluminium is an environmentally friendly metal coating technique. It does not emit any volatile organic compounds. (VOC s). The waste of aluminium anodising constitutes aluminium sulphate and aluminium hydroxide which are recycled and used in water treatment systems and cosmetics. Anodised aluminium can be used in green buildings.
Anodised Aluminium used for Green Building
g) Surface finish
Anodising creates a uniform and regular finish. The problem of orange peeling and high coating thickness may not occur in anodising. Anodising can be applied to modified materials also.
h) 100% Recyclable
Anodised Aluminium can be recycled and reused to any extend. The recycled product possesses the same quality as the virgin product. Coating removal is not necessary before recycling like other coating products.
i) Filiform corrosion
The diminishing of the internal layer between the aluminium surface and the coating doesn’t happen in anodising like other coatings.
J) Chalking
Chalking is the formation of fine powder on the surfaces of paint films due to weathering, whereas in aluminium no chalking will be formed. The colour , gloss, texture etc shall be retained in all atmospheric conditions.
Aluminium anodising – Applications
Anodised aluminium is used in a lot of applications.
a) Building and construction sector in the form or extrusions which are fabricated and erected for sky light,facades, green building, handrails,doors and windows etc.
b) Used for automobile, boat and aircraft parts
c) Food processing industry
d) Decorative works
e) Marine – Yacht masts, pontoons and decks etc
AIRCRAFT PARTS
Demerits of Anodised aluminium
Aluminium anodising got limited colour selection because of the chemicals used in the anodising process. The available colours may not match with the colour scheme of structures.
Touch-up, repair and re coating of anodised product is not possible.
Anodising is vulnerable to lime and cement, Industrial acid, alkali pollutants etc. Anodised aluminium has to be protected while using in under construction buildings.
Anodising is costly than the other polyester coatings.
Anodising does not cover the welded joints.
Shade variation between batches usually happens in anodising.
There are differences in the civil engineering subjects depending on the universities. But you will have to learn the following civil engineering subjects without any option. Because they decide your knowledge in the realm after you walk out of your college as a civil engineer.
So, let’s jump right on to it.
List of civil engineering subjects
Here, I’m going to list out the core subjects in civil engineering.
Surveying
Structural analysis
Construction technology
Geotechnical engineering
Design of concrete structures
Design of steel structures
Design of hydraulic structures
Transportation engineering
Water resource engineering
Environmental engineering
Quantity surveying and valuation
So, you got the civil engineering subjects list. Now, I am going to explain the importance of the subjects and textbooks you can refer to master at each of them. Civil engineering jobs and career growth after completion of professional course depends on the specialisation in any of the subjects.
1. Surveying
TOTAL STATION
Skills acquired
The subject gives you a deep understanding of how you have to carry out the surveying on field. Also, the principles and the theory behind surveying is explicitly drawn.
Applications
You should thrive to get good marks in the subject if your future plan is to be in the construction industry.
Textbooks that can be referred
Basak, Surveying and levelling
i. Dr. B. C. Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Dr Arun Kuma Jain,Dr. Arun Kumar Jain., Surveying, Laxmi publications
ii. Arora K.R, Surveying, Standard book house
The next subject is related to structural engineering.
2. Structural analysis
Skills acquired
The behavior of different building materials on the structure is analysed with the help of various methods.
Applications
The subject is very important while constructing any structure in the field because the material is chosen based on the total load acting on a structure and matching its behavior with that.
Text books that can be referred
i. Aslam Kassimali., Structural analysis, Cenage Learning
ii. Hibbler., Structural analysis , Pearson Education
3. Construction technology
Skills acquired
A comprehensive study of different building materials and fundamental techniques of construction
Applications
This is a theory subject that will be useful for securing marks for several exams related to civil engineering. And, favorite portion of every interviewers.
Text books that can be referred
i. Rangwala S C., Engineering Materials, Charotar Publishers
ii. Arora and Bindra, Building construction, Dhanpath Rai and Sons
4. Geotechnical engineering
Skills acquired
You get to learn about the fundamentals of soil mechanics principles. Also, it provides knowledge about the properties and testing of soils.
Applications
Understanding the characteristics of soil is essential to decide on the type of foundation and building materials when you work on the field.
Text books that can be referred
i. Arora K. R., Geotechnical Engineering, Standard Publishers, 2006.
ii. Das B. M., Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Cengage India Pvt. Ltd., 2010
5. Design of concrete structures
Skills acquired
The subject imparts knowledge of the behavior of reinforced concrete structural elements in various conditions. Also, it enables you to design essential elements such as beams, columns, slabs, staircases and footings under several loads.
Applications
This is an important portion for competitive exams such as UPSC, Gate. And its inevitable for everyone looking forward to work in construction sector.
ii. Pillai S.U 7 Menon D- Reinforced Concrete Design, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co., 2005
6. Water resource engineering
WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING
Skills acquired
This subject gives a thorough knowledge of the scientific methods for computing irrigation water requirements. And fundamental knowledge on reservoir engineering and river engineering
Applications
This is an important subject for people who plan to work as site engineers at water authority, irrigation department and related realms.
Text books that can be referred
i. Arora, K.R., “Irrigation, Water Power and Water Resource Engineering”, Standard Publishers Distributors, New Delhi, 2009
ii. Garg S.K, Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic Structures Khanna Publishers New Delhi 2006
7. Design of hydraulic structures
Skills acquired
The subject imparts knowledge regarding the design of various minor irrigation structures and conveys causes of failure, design criteria and stability analysis of different types of dams.
Applications
From the skills acquired, you might have got an idea of where this is beneficial. It’s important for people who plan to work in water resource related departments.
Text books that can be referred
i. Garg S.K, Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic Structures, Khanna Publishers, 2006
ii. Modi. P.N., Irrigation Water Resources and Water Power Engineering, Standard Book House, 2009
8. Transportation engineering
Skills acquired
The subject envisages to enable the students to have a strong analytical and practical knowledge of geometric design of highways, pavements, efficient management of transportation facilities.
Applications
This is sort of an introduction for students who are interested to pursue research in transportation engineering. The subject can tell you whether you have a liking for this branch of engineering.
Text books that can be referred
i. Kadiyali, L. R., Principles of Highway Engineering, Khanna Publishers, 2001
ii. Khanna, S.K.& Justo E.G., Highway Engineering, Nem Chand & Bros., 2000
9. Design of steel structures
Skills acquired
It introduces the design of structural components subjected to various conditions of loading using steel and timber.
Applications
Important for UPSC exams and those who wish to pursue a career in the construction sector.
Text books that can be referred
i. P. Dayaratnam., Design of Steel Structures, Wheeler Publishing, 2003
ii. Subramanian N, Design of steel structures, Oxford University Press, 2011
10. Environmental engineering
Skills acquired
The subject tells the significance of water resources and the factors affecting the quality and quantity of water. Also, it throws light into the various types of treatment techniques adopted for a public water supply system.
Applications
You will get to know if you like to pursue your higher studies in environmental engineering after learning the subject.
The Properties of Aluminium play an important role in its transformation to one of the most significant and versatile materials on earth. The properties of aluminium are acquired from its ability to form aluminium alloys on combining with chemical elements. These aluminium alloys got unique properties that can be customised for various applications. Aluminium sections are available in various forms that include aluminium square bars, aluminium plates, aluminium extrusions etc.
What is aluminium?
Aluminium is a silvery-white lightweight material that makes up for more than 8% of the earth’s core mass. It is the 13th element of the periodic table. and is the third common element on earth other than silicon and oxygen. Aluminum is available in the form of aluminium sulphates.
ALUMINIUM PROCESSED IN SMELTERS
Manufacturing process of aluminium
The primary raw material used for producing aluminium is Bauxite. Extracting a tonne of aluminium requires 5-6 tonnes of bauxite. Aluminum is manufactured in two phases: the Bayer process of refining the bauxite ore to produce aluminium oxide. Aluminium oxide is processed in smelters to produce aluminium. The process of extraction of aluminium from bauxite is known as electrolysis or electrolytic reduction.
ALUMINIUM SMELTER
Properties of aluminium.
Aluminum is one of the most commonly used building material. Aluminum is the preferred choice for a lot of applications because of its unique and valuable properties.
a) Light weight properties of aluminium
Aluminium is lightweight and is 1/3rd the weight of steel and is one of the lightest materials in the world. Even though aluminium is lightweight it is very strong and corrosion-resistant. Because of its lightweight properties, aluminium can reduce the dead loads on a structure and optimise the design. This optimisation can reduce costs in a lot of applications.
b) Corrosion Resistant properties of aluminium
Aluminum is corrosion-resistant, due to the formation of a thin oxide film on its surface. This film acts as a barrier and prevents corrosion.
c) Non magnetic properties of aluminium
Aluminum is non-magnetic and a very good conductor of heat and electricity. Because of these properties aluminium is used for power transmission cables, computer components, LED lights, etc
d) Flexibility in moulding and fabricating
Aluminum is processed in both cold and hot conditions. It can be easily pulled, moulded, rolled, and extruded very easily. Similarly, aluminium can be formed into thin sheets of even 4-micron thickness. They can be welded and fabricated to any shape. Aluminum is used for making sophisticated aircraft parts to foils for wrapping. Considering the flexibility of fabrication into any shape aluminium forms an integral part of the construction sector for facades, skylights, green building structures, doors, and windows, etc
ALUMINIUM GLASS HOUSE
e) Aluminium alloys
Aluminum forms a huge variety of alloys in combination with a lot of chemical elements. Even the smallest change in the percentage of ingredients can change the metal properties. This gives the much-needed flexibility for usage in various conditions. Aluminum zinc alloy is used for making computer and mobile components, similarly aluminium with silicon is used for manufacturing alloy wheels and automobile components. A small percentage of elements can vary the properties to any extend.
f) No toxic and odourless
Aluminum is non-toxic and orders less. Hence it is used extensively in the food processing and beverage industries.
g) Strength at low temperatures
Aluminum can retain its strength even at very low temperatures wherein steel tends to get brittle in low temperatures.
h) Coating/painting
Aluminium can be coated/finished using any colour in line with the objects colour scheme.
i) Recyclable
Aluminum is a hundred percent recyclable. The recycled product has all the qualities of a virgin product.
j) Reflective properties of aluminium
Aluminum posses very good reflectivity. Hence it is used for roofing sheets and Light shades. Aluminum roofing can reflect heat and cools the ambient temperature.
Applications of aluminium in construction sector
Aluminum can be welded, fabricated, painted, and moulded into any shape and forms. They are lightweight and can be lifted and erected very easily. Because of these unique qualities, aluminium is one of the most versatile, significant, and cost-effective materials used in the construction sector. The most important use of aluminium is in the form of extrusions. Aluminium is also available in form of aluminium square bars, aluminium plates etc. Extrusions are fabricated/jointed to form doors, windows, and partitions, frames of facades, skylight structures, green buildings, aluminium structures, etc. Aluminum extrusions are coated/painted to match the colour scheme of the building/structure. Because of these qualities, aluminium is the most popular material used extensively in the construction sector.
ALUMINIUM EXTRUSIONS FOR VARIOUS USES
Aluminium coatings
Aluminum itself is non-corrosive due to the formation of thin oxide films on the surface for protection from corrosion. Then why you need a coating for aluminum.
a) Enhance the look and appearance
Mill finished aluminium is dull in colour and may not always match with the building/structure’s colour scheme. On the application of the coating, the aluminium structures can match the colour scheme of buildings/structures. Designers/architects proposes the type of coating and colour to be applied after analysing the utilities, environment, and colour schemes. A coating matching with an appropriate colour scheme can enhance the appearance and look of structures/buildings.
b) Increase the Corrosion resistant properties
Most of the cases the oxide film on the surface of aluminium is sufficient to take care of corrosion. In some cases, the structures need an extra protection from corrosion. Similarly long exposure to moisture and water can damage the natural oxide film. The coatings can increase the thickness of oxide film and can provide an extra layer of protection which in turn enhance the protection against wear and tear, handling defects, and corrosion.
ALUMINIUM CLADDING
c) Hardness of members
Coatings can increase the hardness of the materials and protect the material from excessive wear and abrasion encountered on transportation, loading, fabrication erection, etc. Coatings also protect the structures against possible wear and abrasion when used in high traffic areas.
d) Dye marks
Mill finished aluminium have dye marks. Coatings cover these dye marks and makes the surface look smooth and even.
e) Reflectivity
Coatings increase the reflectivity of aluminium and hence used for roofing sheets and light covers.
ALUMINIUM CLADDING
Coatings and treatments on aluminium
The most commonly used types of coatings are as follows. The type of coating basically depends on the choice of colour, hardness required, durability and area of application. The following are the the three different types of coatings commonly used for aluminium.
Stone is a naturally available building material that has been used for construction from the early age of civilization.
Types of stones
The classification of stones are as follows.
a. Geological
i) Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed by cooling and solidifying of the rock masses from their molten magmatic condition of the material of the earth.Eg: Trap and basalt
ii) Sedimentary Rocks: Due to weathering action of water Eg: Sand stones, lime stones
iii) Metamorphic Rocks: Previously formed igneous and sedimentary rocks under go changes due to metamorphic action of pressure and internal heat Eg: quartzite, marble
b. Physical
i) Stratified rocks Sand stones, lime stones
ii) Unstratified rocks Granite, trap, marble
c. Chemical
i) Silicious rocks: The main content of these rocks is silica. Examples are granite, trap, sand stones etc.
ii) Argillaceous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is clay. Eg. Slates and laterites.
iii) Calcareous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate. Eg. Limestone
Had any idea there existed such varieties of stones?
Cool!
Now let me list out the important properties of stone that make you choose it for your building.
Properties of stone
Structure
Texture:
Density
Appearance
Strength
Hardness
Percentage wear
Porosity and Absorption
Weathering
Toughness
Resistance to Fire
Ease in Dressing
Seasoning
Before thinking about considering stone for your next building, have a close look at the following tests on stones.
Tests on Stones
(i) crushing strength test
(ii) water absorption test
(iii) abrasion test
(iv) impact test
(v) acid test
So, tests are done. Now, let me tell you, where all you can use this building material.
Uses of Stones
(i) Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches.
(ii) Stones are used for flooring.
(iii) Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials.
(iv) Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings. Polished marbles and granite are commonly used for face works.
(v) Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings.
(vi) Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and retaining walls.
(vii) Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base course for roads. When mixed with tar they form finishing coat.
Wah! Lots of possible applications, right?
Moving on to the next building material, it’s none other than the lovely bricks.
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2. Brick- Introducing second building material
Brick, the next in the category of building materials is obtained by molding good clay into a block, which is dried and then burnt.
Now, bricks being one among the inevitable materials in the building and construction sector, let’s know it deeper.
Types of Bricks
Major types of bricks are,
(i) Building Bricks
These bricks are used for the construction of walls.
(ii) Paving Bricks
These are vitrified bricks and are used as pavers.
(iv) Special Bricks
These bricks are different from the commonly used building bricks with respect to their shape and the purpose for which they are made.
Figure shows example of special bricks
Some of such bricks are listed below:
(a) Specially Shaped Bricks
Bricks of special shapes are manufactured to meet the requirements of different situations.
(b) Facing Bricks
These bricks are used in the outer face of masonry. Once these bricks are provided, plastering is not required. The standard size of these bricks are 190 × 90 × 90 mm or 190 × 90 × 40 mm.
(c) Perforated Building Bricks
These bricks are manufactured with area of perforation of 30 to 45 per cent. The area of each perforation should not exceed 500 mm2. The perforation should be uniformly distributed over the surface. They are manufactured in the size 190 × 190 × 90 mm and 290 × 90 × 90 mm.
(d) Burn’t Clay Hollow Bricks:
Bricks are used for the construction of partition walls. They provide good thermal insulation to buildings. They are manufactured in the sizes 190 × 190 × 90 mm, 290 × 90 × 90 mm and 290 × 140 × 90 mm. The thickness of any shell should not be less than 11 mm and that of any web not less than 8 mm. WEBS 8 mm minimum thick Fig. 1.4. Hollow bricks
(e) Sewer Bricks
These bricks are used for the construction of sewage lines. They are manufactured from surface clay, fire clay shale or with the combination of these. They are manufactured in the sizes 190 × 90 × 90 mm and 190 × 90 × 40 mm. The average strength of these bricks should be a minimum of 17.5 N/mm2 . The water absorption should not be more than 10 per cent.
( f ) Acid Resistant Bricks
These bricks are used for floorings likely to be subjected to acid attacks, lining of chambers in chemical plants, lining of sewers carrying industrial wastes etc. They are made of clay or shale of suitable composition with low lime and iron content, flint or sand and vitrified at high temperature in a ceramic kiln.
Expanding the little information, let’s see the properties of bricks.
Properties of Bricks
(i) Colour
Colour should be uniform and bright.
(ii) Shape
Bricks should have plane faces. They should have sharp and true right angled corners.
(iii) Size
Bricks should be of standard sizes as prescribed by codes.
(iv) Texture
They should possess fine, dense and uniform texture. They should not possess fissures, cavities, loose grit and unburnt lime.
(v) Soundness
When struck with hammer or with another brick, it should produce metallic sound.
(vi) Hardness
Finger scratching should not produce any impression on the brick.
(vii) Strength
Crushing strength of brick should not be less than 3.5 N/mm2. A field test for strength is that when dropped from a height of 0.9 m to 1.0 mm on a hard ground, the brick should not break into pieces.
(viii) Water Absorption
After immercing the brick in water for 24 hours, water absorption should not be more than 20 per cent by weight. For class-I works this limit is 15 per cent.
(ix) Efflorescence
Bricks should not show white patches when soaked in water for 24 hours and then allowed to dry in shade. White patches are due to the presence of sulphate of calcium, magnesium and potassium. They keep the masonry permanently in damp and wet conditions.
(x) Thermal Conductivity
Bricks should have low thermal conductivity, so that buildings built with them are cool in summer and warm in winter.
So, like you tested the stones to know whether its suitable for the work you intended, why not sneak into the tests on bricks?
Tests on Bricks
(i) Crushing strength
(ii) Absorption
(iii) Shape and size and
(iv) Efflorescence
Going on, let’s see the main uses of bricks below.
Uses of Bricks
(i) As building blocks.
(ii) For lining of ovens, furnaces and chimneys.
(iii) For protecting steel columns from fire.
(iv) As aggregates in providing water proofing to R.C.C. roofs.
(v) For pavers for footpaths and cycle tracks.
(vi) For lining sewer lines.
How was your time with bricks?
Alright. We are good to meet the last one now.
3. Lime- Introducing third building material
It is one of the oldest binding materials used in building construction. When it is mixed with sand it provides lime mortar and when mixed with sand and coarse aggregate, it forms lime concrete.
The major types of lime are,
Fat lime
Hydraulic lime
Poor lime
And important tests on limestones are,
Tests on Limestones
(i) Physical tests
(ii) Heat test
(iii) Chemical test
(iv) Ball test
Last, but not the least,
Uses of lime are,
(i) For white washing.
(ii) For making mortar for masonry works and plastering.
(iii) To produce lime sand bricks.
(iv) For soil stabilization.
(v) As a refractory material for lining open hearth furnaces.
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